Graveyard Geology in Armthorpe

 

Volcanic green slate used for the memorial to Maria and Albert Dobson

I spent less than an hour looking at the exterior and interior of the Church of St. Leonard and Mary in Armthorpe, including a discussion of the creation of a ‘friends group’ with Captain Andrew Payne, before going to search for the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) headstones in the churchyard.

 

CWGC headstones in the churchyard

 

It didn’t take long for me to find these headstones and, having seen all of the regimental crests before, I just took a general photograph of them without taking a close look at the Portland stone that has been used to make them.

 

CWGC headstones made of Portland stone

 

The headstone of Lance Serjeant Sydney Brunt of the Coldstream Guards is the only headstone that is made of Botticino marble, as a replacement of the original headstone, but there is no record of the stone that was first used.

 

The headstone of Lance Serjeant Sydney brunt

I then had a wander around the churchyard to see what other stones that I could find. I immediately came across the memorial to Sub-Lieutenant Ian Macallister of the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, a privately commissioned headstone in the form of a Celtic cross.

 

The memorial of Sub-Lieutenant Ian Macallister

Although the CWGC monitor the condition of these private memorials, they do not maintain them and there is no record of the headstone on their website. Although the roughly hewn finish and accumulated dirt makes it harder to identify than a polished stone, it looks to me like a granite from the Cornubian Batholith, which underlies much of Cornwall and Devon and outcrops as distinctive tors on Bodmin Moor and Dartmoor.

 

The headstone of Emily and George Foster

The headstone of Emily Foster (d.1952) and her husband George (d.1965) is made out of a quite finely grained grey granite, with which I am not familiar and I didn’t take any close up photos with my macro camera setting to help me identify the mineralogy.

 

The headstone of Annie and William Scarsbrook

 

Italian white Carrara marble is used for the kerbed headstone of Annie (d.1953) and William (d.1979) Scarsbrook, with some of the lead lettering having been lost due to the effects of weathering in the British climate – as I had seen two days before at Handsworth New Cemetery.

 

The kerbed headstone of Mary and Fred Belton

Another kerbed headstone, this time commemorating Mary (d.1947) and Fred (d.1963) Belton, is made of a red granite that I think is Scottish Peterhead granite from the Aberdeenshire coast, which I have seen many times in later Victorian banks and memorials.

 

The headstone of Harry Bond

 

The headstone of Harry Bond (d.1942) is made with an igneous rock from Norway, which is known in the stone trade as Emerald Pearl and by geologists as larvikite - a variety of monzonite that is essentially composed of the end-member potassium, sodium and calcium feldspars.

 

The headstone of members of the Higham family

  

Along with Blue Pearl, which is seen in the headstone that commemorates various members of the Higham family, larvikite is easily recognised by the iridescence described as the Schiller effect - a characteristic that made this stone very popular with late Victorian and Edwardian architects, when designing banks and other commercial buildings. 

An Earth Learning Idea resource by Peter Kennett

 

This very attractive stone appears in many booklets and online guides, which highlight the stones used in buildings and memorials as a way to introduce students at all levels to ‘urban geology’ – as highlighted by Peter Kennett, Eric Robinson and others.

 

The headstone of Maria and Albert Dobson

Moving on to the kerbed headstone of Maria Dobson (d.1941) and her husband Albert (d.1945), I was very interested to see that this is made of volcanic green slate from the Borrowdale Volcanic Group in Cumbria – a succession of andesitic lava, ignimbrites and tuffs that I mapped as a geology undergraduate at Nottingham University.

 

Glaciofluvial pebbles

When looking closely at stone used for some of the headstones, I noticed a few glaciofluvial pebbles on the ground beside them and, when continuing my wander around the headstones, discovered that these are found everywhere in the churchyard.

 

Glaciofluvial pebbles

I collected several pebbles, which included several examples of white vein quartz and various quartzites, with some Carboniferous sandstone in the form of ventifacts, which have flattened faces that are the result of the sandblasting action of wind blown sand.

 

Glaciofluvial pebbles collected from the churchyard

Looking at the geological map of the area, the churchyard is sited on a deposit of Quaternary glaciofluvial sand and gravel of Pre-Ipswichian age that overlies the Triassic red sandstone of the Chester Formation, which in Doncaster contains no pebble beds. The presence of ‘Bunter quartzite’ pebbles indicates that these were derived from the Midlands by north-west flowing meltwater during the Wolstonian glaciation.

 

The geological map of the area around Armthorpe

The last headstone that I photographed commemorates Irene (d.2019) and John (d. 2022) Dodson, which is made of a red granite that looks like it might be Balmoral red granite from Finland, but granites used for modern headstones are obtained from all over the world, with India and China being the leading suppliers.

 

The headstone of Irene and John Dobson

 

Leaving the churchyard by the lychgate, I stopped to photograph the ‘black granite’ war memorial that has been set into the wall and which mainly records victims of WW1 and WW2, but includes servicemen who died in the Khyber Pass and in Northern Ireland.

 

The war memorial in the lychgate

St. Mary's Church in Armthorpe - Part 2

 

Decoration to the south impost of the chancel arch

Entering the Church of St. Leonard and St. Mary in Armthorpe by the south door, having briefly looked at its exterior, I immediately noted that the walls are plastered and that the exposed stonework is confined to the window dressings, the chancel arch and the arcade.

 

A view of the arcade and nave

 

Towards the east end of the nave, Pevsner describes an unmoulded pointed arch across the nave as being an unusual feature and that it supported an earlier bell turret. He further states that it is of uncertain date, although he considers that it could be early C13. 

 

The arch that supported an earlier bell turret

The north aisle, along with the arcade, was added during the 1885 restoration and, with it being partly occupied by attendees of the Wednesday crafting session, I didn’t spend any time inspecting the stone used for the window dressings. 

 

A view east along the north aisle

 

Although I again didn’t look closely at the stone, the arcade appears to be built with a uniformly buff coloured medium grained gritstone. this is quite unusual, as dolomitic limestone from local quarries in the Cadeby Formation is typically used for the mediaeval churches in Doncaster and for the Victorian Doncaster Minster and Christ Church. 

 

The arcade

I am not familiar with other Victorian churches in Doncaster and what stones may have been used in them but, with the railway network in the north of England having been well established by the time the north aisle was added, it is probable that the sandstone used is from West Yorkshire – with Huddersfield stone from the Rough Rock and Bolton Woods sandstone from the Elland Flags being popular materials. 

 

A slit window in the south wall of the nave

The walls of Norman churches tend to be very thick and, on the south side of the nave, this can be seen in the deep splays to the slit windows, which were designed to provide the maximum amount of light. The dolomitic limestone used for the window surrounds, however, is very dirty and its properties could not be seen. 

 

Windows in the south wall of the nave

 

Moving along the nave to the chancel arch, which is described by Historic England as dating to the C11, with a “plain round arch with chamfered imposts, that on south carved with crosses and zig-zag motif”, but Pevsner failed to note this. 

 

Views of the chancel arch

In respect of the decoration on the impost, the Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture of Britain and Ireland adds “Patterns laid out within a grid are common, but a prominent raised grid like this is rare” and suggests that the mason either did not know what decoration would be required or that he wasn’t supervised. 

 

The decorated south impost in the chancel arch

 

The lighting in the chancel was very poor and I didn’t manage to get a good look of the details, but I did notice that a red sandstone has been used for the flooring, in conjunction with dolomitic limestone. Although the underlying bedrock is red sandstone of the Triassic Chester Formation, this is not suitable for building or paving and I assume that it is Red Mansfield stone, which was very often used by Victorian architects. 

 

Red sandstone sandstone used for the chancel floor

 

After taking a few more general record photos of the interior, including the stained glass, I then went to have a look around the churchyard, where seven Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstones are located. 

 

A view west along the nave

 

St. Mary's Church in Armthorpe - Part 1

A view from the south-west

Since commencing my investigation of the 70 mediaeval churches in South Yorkshire, at St. Helen’s church in Treeton back in February 2016, by April 2025 I had managed to visit 58 of these, as well as 72 others in the surrounding counties and further afield. 

 

A view from Doncaster Road

 

Following on from an afternoon spent in nearby Handsworth, I took advantage of a regular Wednesday morning crafting session to visit the Church of St. Leonard and St. Mary in Armthorpe, dated by Historic England (HE) as “C11, C12 and C15 restored and extended 1885 for patron Lord Auckland of Edenthorpe”. 

 

A view from the south-east

 

Entering the churchyard through the lychgate, I noted the north aisle, east windows, porch, weatherboarded bell turret and the rendered exterior, which are all part of the 1885 restoration and presumably account for the church only having Grade II listed status. 

 

A detail of the limestone used for quoins to the nave

 

After having a very quick look at the irregularly shaped quoins on the south-east corner of the nave, which are made of dolomitic limestone from the Upper Permian Cadeby Formation, I walked quickly around the exterior in an anti-clockwise direction to take a few general record photos. 

 

The east end

 

Passing the vestry (1976), which further detracts from the mediaeval origins of the church, I didn’t examine the limestone used for the C19 window dressings, and assumed that it was a further use of dolomitic limestone, but the honey coloured patina that has developed on the window dressings of the north aisle is more typical of Jurassic oolitic limestones. 

 

The north elevation

I have encountered Ancaster limestone many times, where used in the late Victorian restoration of mediaeval churches built with dolomitic limestone from the Cadeby Formation, even though the latter was still readily available and it is possible that it has been used here. 

 

The west window of the nave

 

Moving round to the west end of the nave, the quoins and dressings look like they have been restored with the same limestone used for the C19 work, but it does not have a honey coloured patina. Usually, where Ancaster stone has been used, its distinctive ripple marks, sometimes referred to as ‘streaky bacon’ texture, are clearly seen, but my photo does not show these. 

 

A restored C12 slit window

 

Continuing to the south elevation of the nave, a restored round headed slit window provides evidence of the antiquity of the church and to the right of the porch, the HE description refers to a C15, cusped, square-headed 3-light window flanked by C12 round-headed slit windows., with a square-headed, ogee-traceried, single-light window to their right. 

 

Various styles of windows in the nave

HE further describe the chancel as having a “Small priest’s door with a chamfered, quoined surround and ogee-soffit lintel; on its left a square-headed, ogee-traceried, single-light window; on right a similar window of 2 lights”. Although some of the masonry and tracery have been restored at some time, plenty of the original dolomitic limestone is retained. 

 

The south elevation of the chancel

 

Returning to the C19 porch, much of the stonework on its south elevation and in the interior has been badly eroded and has had to be replaced in recent years, with efflorescent salts suggesting a problem with damp. In contrast, the limestone used for the original pilaster on the nave has not been affected to such an extent. 

 

The porch

 

Entering the porch, the round arched south door is dated by Pevsner to c.1200 and it has a very simple form, with no elaborate decoration and very plain capitals to the shafts, which have been replaced quite recently judging by the fresh appearance of the limestone.

 

The arch to the south door

Handsworth New Cemetery

 

A detail of the headstone of Private Charlie Rodgers

I spent just over 2½ hours having a walk around Handsworth to photograph several listed buildings, including St. Joseph’s primary school and Bramley Hall for a British Listed Buildings Photo Challenge, and finished my day by searching for the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) headstones at Handsworth New Cemetery.

 

The headstones of  H. Price, K. Sharp and A. Evans

The headstones of Aircraftmen H. Price and K. Sharp of the Royal Air Force and Driver A. Evans of the Royal Army Service Corps, whose regimental crests I had already seen, are all made of Botticino ‘marble’, a Jurassic limestone from Brescia in Italy. This is solely used by the CWGC for replacement headstones made with a CNC milling machine, but the original mason’s worksheets don’t record the original material.

 

The cross of Rose Ann Dunn

 

As always, as a geologist with specialist interests in building stones, I take note of the various stones used for other headstones and memorials and I soon encountered the cross of Rose Ann Dunn (d.1947). I immediately thought that the colour and texture suggests that this was obtained from either Cornwall or Devon, where the Cornubian Batholith is widely exposed, but I didn’t examine it closely.

 

A detail of the memorial to Rose Ann Dunn

Another granite of a different character, without alkali feldspar phenocrysts, is used for the headstones of Private S.T. North of the King’s Own Yorkshire Light Infantry, Private T.H.W.W. Brownett of the York and Lancaster Regiment and Gunner F.E. Faulkner of the Royal Artillery.

 

The headstones of S.T. North, T.H.W.W. Brownett and F.E. Faulkner

This looks very much like the granite used for Private J.T. Cawthorne of the King’s Own Yorkshire Light Infantry, which I had seen at Handsworth Old Cemetery and considered to be very similar to Creetown granite – recorded as been used for the headstone of Driver C.W. Eagers of the Royal Engineers in Crookes Cemetery. 

 

The headstone of Private Charlie Rodgers

 

The same granite has been used for the headstone of Private Charlie Rodgers of the 9th (Queen’s Royal) Lancers, whose regimental crest I had not seen before. The mason’s worksheet again does not provide any information, but the samples of the Creetown granite in the National Building Stone Collection provide a good match. 

 

Specimens of Creetown granite in the National Building Stone Collection

 

Coming to the headstones of Private T. Sharp of the Royal Army Medical Corps and Private E. Stickland of the Durham Light Infantry, I was at first quite puzzled by the very fine grained stone used for these, where its colour was obscured by dirt. 

 

The headstones of Private T. Sharp and Private E. Stickland

Looking more closely at the headstone, particularly where a small piece had broken off, I could see that the stone used is Welsh slate, which is the first time that I had seen this in more than 650 CWGC headstones that I had so far photographed. 

 

A damaged headstone exposing the Welsh slate

 

The Italian Carrara marble kerbed headstone, commemorating Elizabeth (d.1938) and Thomas Crapper (d.1947), appears to have been kept clean and well maintained, if the recorded dates are indicative of the date when this was made.

 

The headstone of Elizabeth and Thomas Crapper

 

Other Carrara marble headstones, which date to the 1950’s and 1960’s, have developed a grey patina and a saccharoidal texture, with some of the lead lettering having fallen off, and the headstone of Edith Crookes (d.1931) has weathered to the extent that the more resistant calcite veins stand proud and the lead lettering casts a distinct shadow. 

 

Various Carrara marble headstones

 

Portland stone is used for the headstone of Lance Corporal H.E. Brayford of the 65th West Riding Battalion Home Guard and the mason’s worksheet for this also lists Aircraftman H. Price and Lance Corporal Molly Carter of the Auxiliary Territorial Service. These were also presumably made with Portland stone, but they have since been reproduced with Botticino marble. 

 

The headstone of Lance Corporal H.E. Brayford

 

The detail of the Brayford headstone shows that the shell fragments are standing proud, with some loss of detail of the inscription and regimental crest. Portland stone is a durable material and a reproduction is made only when the inscription becomes illegible and any advanced decay my be explained by the close proximity of the Orgreave Coking Works, which closed in 1990. 

 

A detail of the headstone of Lance Corporal H.E. Brayford

Having found all the CWGC headstones, with the last being of Molly Carter, I made my way towards the exit and encountered the large memorials to Hector Morton (d.1918) and various members of the Shaw family (d.1908 to 2003), which are made with grey granites. 

 

the regimental crest on the headstone of Molly Carter

The Morton memorial looks like Rubislaw granite from Aberdeen whose dark variety, with a high content of black biotite mica, I am familiar with where used in various Victorian buildings. The Shaw memorial is made of granite that is much lighter in colour and contains less biotite, which is probably another Scottish granite. 

 

Memorials to Hector Morton (L) and members of the Shaw family (R)

 

Looking through the British Geological Survey (BGS) imagebase, there are slightly lighter varieties of Rubislaw granite and when uploading a detailed photo of the Shaw memorial granite to its image search, various Scottish granites were included in the search results; however, the results also included basalt, limestone, schist and various photomicrographs, which shows that this AI tool is far from being reliable.

 

A photo of granite uploaded to the BGS image search tool